Friedberg_Nila-2021

D E C O D I N G T H E 2 0 S 3 4 8 instead. In this section we focus on a small subset of such constructions, relevant for character description in Bulgakov’s Heart of a Dog . The use and omission of the copular verb есть in possessive and similar constructions has been discussed by many scholars (Freels 2007, Apresian 2017; Letuchii 2018; Dymarsky 2018, among others). The general observation is that есть typically appears in sentences emphasizing the fact of possession, presence, or existence, while zero-copula typically appears in sentences emphasizing a specific characteristic of what is possessed or present: Focus on the existence of an apartment, its possession / ownership: (1) У Филиппа Филипповича есть квартира. Filipp Filippovich has an apartment. Focus on a characteristic of the apartment, i.e., its size: (2) У Филиппа Филипповича огромная квартира. Filipp Filippovich has an enormous apartment. When appearances are described, and the noun denoting a body part is modified, zero-copula is required. (3) У него курносый нос. He has a snub nose. У нее рыжие волосы. She has red hair. У меня большие глаза. I have big eyes. Likewise, when one’s first or last name is described, and the noun denoting the name is modified, zero-copula is required (Apresian 2017). (4) У нее французская фамилия. She has a French surname. У него странное имя. He has a strange name. Body parts (as well as names) are perceived as “inalienable possession” (Kopotev 2007; in Apresian 2017), which may be why one’s “ownership” of them is not explicitly stated (their existence is assumed) and есть is omitted.