Community Resilience to Climate Change: Theory, Research and Practice

81 population, economy, weather) into community planning and decision-making.” In the definitions written by practitioners, almost one in ten specifically mentioned the future, and nearly 15 percent of responses suggested the need for advanced planning. For example, one respondent defined resilience as “No surprises for changing landscape. Advanced planning to make us better prepared”. Another wrote “… as change occurs, it has been anticipated and planned for such that no or minimal disruption occurs.” While the academic literature also emphasizes preparing for future changes, some resilience scholars caution against too much emphasis on prediction or the use of single scenarios to understand future threats. Instead, focus is placed on techniques such as scenario planning [7] and the selection of actions that will perform well under a wide array of potential future conditions (known as robust actions in the scholarly literature) [66]. This assessment did not evaluate the types of tools or techniques that local practitioners are using as part of their advanced planning, but we would argue that it is important to provide practitioners with appropriate tools and the support needed to effectively utilize them. Another area of discrepancy relates to the relative importance of adaptive capacity. In the urban climate resilience literature, building resilience is often equated with enhancing adaptive capacity [9]. However, survey respondents did not rate adaptive capacity among the most important characteristics. Furthermore, the term adaptive capacity was not explicitly used in any respondents’ definitions; however, 21 respondents did allude to it. In the academic literature, flexibility is one of the most commonly cited resilience characteristics [9]. Flexibility means that a system can function under different circumstances and absorb change [6]. In the survey, flexibility was defined as “making municipal operations and plans flexible and open to change when needed”. Unfortunately, efficient adaptation and robustness against certain threats may come at the expense of the flexibility to deal with unexpected future changes [35]. If practitioners are primarily focused on robustness, as the survey results suggest, urban systems may not be sufficiently flexible to deal with unexpected climate impacts or other stressors. There were two respondents who explicitly called out flexibility: One noted that moving towards climate resilience would mean “increasing flexibility” and another stated that resilient jurisdictions should “exhibit nimble behavior”. Overall, however, flexibility was not highlighted in the practitioners’ definition of resilience. This seems logical given that local institutional structures and decision-making processes are rigid, making it difficult to create flexible, adaptive systems capable of integrating emerging information and changing as needed. Going forward, devising solutions to build more flexible systems will likely remain an important area of research. Like flexibility, diversity is frequently cited in the literature as a key characteristic of resilience. This relates back to ecological theory, which suggests that biodiversity enhances the ability of an ecosystem to withstand change [51]. Looking specifically at the urban climate change context, Tyler and Moench [6] differentiate between “spatial diversity”, meaning system components are widely distributed to reduce the likelihood that the whole system is impacted by a single disruption, and “functional diversity”, where there are multiple avenues for meeting critical needs. Diversity can also be applied to governance systems, with the idea being that polycentric systems that engage a wide array of stakeholders are more resilient [9]. For the purposes of the survey, diversity was defined more broadly as “Ensuring a diverse economy, infrastructure, and resource base (e.g., not relying on single mode of operation, solution, or agent/institution).” Given the emphasis on diversity in the resilience literature, it was surprising that more respondents did not rate it as important, and only one explicitly mentioned diversity in their definition. Related to the concept of spatial diversity, scholars have argued that decentralized systems are more resilient than centralized ones because when something disrupts a central unit, the entire system is jeopardized, whereas in a decentralized system it only impacts a small portion. In the literature, arguments are made for decentralization in both physical systems (like electricity generation) and governance [35,67]. Admittedly, some resilience scholars caution that decentralized governance may not be universally preferable [14,68,69]. Survey respondents clearly rated decentralization, defined in terms of “decentralizing services, resources, and governance, e.g., solar or wind energy; stronger local governance”, as less critical for resilience than all the other 15 criteria. Similarly, none of their definitions mentioned decentralization. For most resilience scholars, a certain level of functional redundancy is thought to enhance resilience; the argument being that when you have units with overlapping functions, if one falters, it can be easily substituted [24]. The definition provided for redundancy in the survey was “having back-up systems, infrastructure, institutions, and agents”. Like diversity, redundancy is a characteristic that can be applied to both technical systems, like electricity infrastructure, and social networks. Only one respondent mentioned redundancy in their definition, and then only in the context of “water and power systems”. This mismatch between theory and practice with respect to redundancy could stem from the fact that redundancy has a somewhat negative connotation, and supporting it may seem to conflict with cost or even eco-efficiency [20,49]. In fact, scholars have cautioned that efficiency may be at odds with redundancy [70] and that “efficiency, as traditionally conceived, does not necessarily promote resilience” [71]. Yet efficiency still tends to have a positive connotation in popular discourse, and is sometimes cited in the literature as a characteristic of resilient urban systems [22]. Some urban resilience scholars such as Ahern [51] have argued that resilient systems should be “safe-to-fail” as opposed to “fail- safe”. In the survey, this was represented by the characteristic predictable, defined as “ensuring that systems are designed to fail in predictable, safe ways”. Looking specifically at urban climate resilience, Tyler and Moench [6] define “safe failure” as “the ability to