Community Resilience to Climate Change: Theory, Research and Practice

183 emergency services. Disengagement was attributed to two main factors: Coastal communities with little recent experience of a major fire. The previous large fire on the Far South Coast was 20 years ago (1994). Population growth and turnover has reportedly contributed to a loss of local knowledge and a breakdown of community networks through urbanisation and rural land-use change. The seasonal nature of fire risk leads to community complacency and a disinterest in preventative action when fire events fail to materialise. While the community routinely identified the RFS as a trusted source of information and assistance, they were often at a loss to describe what other social and information networks or services they might draw upon in the event of a fire. Landuse planning decisions, in relation to new residential developments that fail to take into account current and future fire risks (which are likely to increase in frequency and intensity) were linked to adverse impacts upon NRM, often requiring risk-mitigation activities that are damaging to sensitive coastal ecosystems. 2.4. Drought 2.4.1. Prepare The Prepare phase for drought was likened to “a train crash you see coming for a period before it hits”. Landholders in all three areas reported monitoring the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) forecasts of the Southern Oscillation Index and El Nino warnings. However, as with bushfire, they felt that the value of the warnings was diminished by their inaccuracy. Instead landholders monitor subtle signs within the local landscape such as feed levels, pasture and plant growth and water levels in creeks and dams. For larger-scale commercial farms, landholders reported using a general heuristic for drought preparation, with failed autumn rain as the initial warning, followed by failed spring rain, which indicates the onset of drought: “When the spring rains failed last year, farmers started preparing for drought”. (Drought workshop—Crookwell-Goulburn landscape) Participants agreed that “you have to be prepared at all times to respond to drought”, and that there is “nothing lost” in undertaking preparations. Drought preparations were considered good management practice in an “unpredictable climate”. Preparation activities focus on the capture, retention and distribution of water in the landscape via landscape-based water harvesting, dam and weir maintenance, reticulating and recycling (particularly on smaller-scale properties) water to draw on during drought. Monitoring and maintaining groundcover is seen as critically important to prevent erosion. Landholders plant perennial grasses, swales and deep- rooted trees to improve retention and access to soil moisture. 2.4.2. Respond Unlike bushfire, there is often little clear distinction between Prepare and Respond phases for drought. The slow but progressive onset of drought makes it difficult for people to realise they are in the Respond phase: “By the time you realise, you are already in a drought”. (Drought workshop—Boorowa-Yass landscape) The Respond phase is evidenced by ongoing deficit of rainfall, particularly during periods of high evaporative demand, loss of surface water, lack of pasture growth, and vegetation die back. The adaptive responses are highly localised as landholders review their situation in terms of water reserves, livestock numbers, availability and cost of feed and their financial situation. Drought has a severe impact upon animals through reduced access to pastures, loss of condition and increased likelihood of disease. Landholders weigh up the potential damage of stock management actions on natural resources such as the pasture base and soil condition. Landholders reported the widespread adoption of practices such as “sacrificial paddocks” (paddocks reserved for high-intensity grazing) and drought feed lots, as well as constant adjustment of stock numbers using computer software-based management tools, if available. They also use drought as an opportunity to remove accumulated sediment from dams to increase their capacity while they are dry, and to repair fencing. Drought also affects biodiversity through reduced habitat availability and quality e.g., paddock trees often have hollows for arboreal animals but these trees are susceptible to die back during drought. Erosion and dust storms can also reduce water quality and low water levels negatively impact on aquatic biodiversity. Unlike other extreme climate events, drought fails to attract an emergency management response. This is most likely because of the spatial variation in onset, the slow progression from Prepare to Respond and the often vast scale of the disaster. Community-based NRM groups (e.g., Landcare) can act to mobilise volunteers for NRM; however, landholders reported a decline in Landcare membership during drought because people become more focused on the management of their own property rather than undertaking NRM action on public land (particularly smaller-scale landholders). Would-be volunteers become short of time because of the additional burdens of hand-feeding stock (larger-scale landholders), stock transport and sales. Hand feeding is increasingly difficult for an ageing farm population, often comprising single owner-managers on large properties. Long-term droughts can contribute to the erosion of local NRM skills and knowledge, which would normally be mediated through social networks. Government agriculture and NRM agencies were identified as contributing to community cohesion and resilience in some areas. While Government may declare an area as drought affected this may not trigger support, as the duration of the response phase is unpredictable.