Arabic and English Sentence Patterns: A Comparative Guide

15 | P a g e directly linked to any particular form, its various conditions can be expressed in numerous ways. 4.1 Modals, MODALITY, and mood 4.1.1 ENGLISH Modal auxiliary verbs ( could , should , would , might , may , must , etc.) are the most common means of expressing modality in English. Modals are not grammatically marked for specific moods but assist the reader or listener in discovering such elements as the opinion, intention, or feeling of the writer or speaker. Some modals are marked for tense ( could : past, can : present), but these markings are such inconsistent indicators of time reference that distinguishing between past- and present-tense modals is rarely worthwhile. One formal time reference does exist, incorrectly referred to in many textbooks as the present perfect or modal perfect . This form, a modal followed by have and a past participle, is a consistent indicator of past time but does not include perfect aspect. The present perfect, in a sentence such as “Martha has studied the lesson,” has current relevance (viewing the action from the vantage point of the present). The modal past, however, in a sentence such as “Martha could have studied the lesson,” refers to a specific point in the past when she had the opportunity and probably did not take it ; 28 the current relevance of the perfect aspect is reduced or absent. Modals in past contexts indicate simple past time 29 and are therefore included in the charts under the past tense/past time reference rather than under past tense/perfect aspect/past time . 30 Modality is also expressed by past tense verbs, as in “If he studied, he would succeed,” the few remaining subjunctive mood forms, as in “So be it!,” 31 and certain adverbials, such as perhaps . The predominance of modals over these